2.
   2023
/  
 
(    )
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.         
2. 
        ?
-
3.      '  ?
4.      ?
-
5. 
     ?
2.
6.    
-
7.      ?
8.        
   2023
/  
 
(    )
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.         
: 
   ,       
  ,                
 
;   ,          
  ,    
         
             

2.
      1270        
          -  (/)    
      , ,   / ,    ,
,        
,       
-       ,          
     ,     ,      
    
   
              
 
 ,      (/)        
            ,    
       
,        
                 
 ,               
    
;   
       
   
                 ,
             
              ,  
-          
     ' 
   ,              
       ,       
                  
      
            :
      
       
, ,       

       
    ,        ,   
              
2.
 ,      ,    
      
 
     
           , -  
               
                 
   ,        
;  
       
       
 ,       
 
       
 ;   ,  
                   
       
   
        
        ,
, , ,             
   ,      
    
      
        
    -   - , ,    -   
         -     
  '     
       
                    
             61    
       
 
          '   
        ,        
           ,    
    
 
  
,  
 :
2.
    
       
  ,     
          
     
       ,         
     ,         (   
  )          
       
       
, ,     
 1350        ,    '    
"" 
  ,         
    
  
    
 
           :
     
       
     
      
      
 ,   ,    ' 

     ,       ,    
     ,     ,      
            ,  
          , ,   
      
            
2.
2. 
        ?
: 󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     -   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
 
    ,  
 ,     
       ,          
 -         
;  ,    
          ,    
   
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :      -   ,    -  
          
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
      (  )   (  ) 
  
13
 ,     ,       
    
          ,   
      
      , ,      
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
1.  :  ,   ' 
2. :    -      
3. :        '   
4.   :  ,         ,
     
5. :            ,
  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     ,        

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
1.  (15
)
          
     '  
2.
  ()       
 
2.  (16
)
   
          ,   
   
     
3.  (16
)
  ,       
       
          
4.  (16
)
  ,      
           
5.     (1469–1539)
   
   ,   -     
       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
  :      -    ,
  
 :         
 
 :      ,  

 :           
 :  (, )     
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
                 
       : "   
 - 

     "        
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  -     
2.

   
   
  
   
  

 ()
  ( )
 
  
 ' 
  
 
      
 
, 
, ,  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
           -     
  ,    '   ,      
  , , ,         
  ,        
-
3.      '  ?
: 
   ,  
         ,
  ,   
 ,  
 ,      
        
 -       
  -        ,   
                ,
     
  ?
               '
,         ,   , 
         '           '
   
;          , , 
     ,        
       :
""    ,          
  
2.
  ""            

        
  
     
 -  -     

1.      
     ,           
      ,        
 , ,    '        
     '   ,  ,      '
            -  

 
2.   
-    , , -     
   -   ,        
         - ,      -
          -        
,  (),           
3.    
       :
 (   )
    ( , )
  (,  )
,       ;      
   
  
2.
      ,  -     
 
1.    (8
- 10
)
  ,         
 
   :
  -       '  
 --             
  
,          
 -     ,  
  
      ,     ,    

             

2.   (10
- 12
)
-,         :
  ()  
//       
     /   
   , , ,         
   :
 - , ,     
 
 
 
          ,      
    
3.   
2.
              ,    
 :        
;    ,    
     :
   ()
   ()
 
  
    ()          
 ,  
         
 
    
    ,          
1.   
 ,              
 ,          
2.  
     '        :



        
3.  
     '      :
  ,
  ,
              
2.
4.   
   ,   :


     ,          

    
   
    
;    
   ,      
     
        
     ,        
 
    
    
,     
  
  ,  ,       
            ,   
 
  ,   '  ,    ,  
 ,  
         

            
            ,    , ,
      '     ,   
  ,   '  -     -  , , 
         ,  ,     
  ,    
        
,    
    
2.
4.      ?
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
,          ,   
  
 -            
       ,        ' 
 : ,   -  ,         
,          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :    
,      
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
1.  -   
     ,           

               
;
       
     , 
     
          
     , 
        
    
2.     
 
               
         
,             
    
,     󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:    
           
3.    (  -)
                ,  
   
 (  )        
2.
     -         

4.    
 ,      
   ,           
 
     ,        
,       󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :   
       
5. -  
  (  )    
,           
,    
-   '   
   󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       
,   
      
6.    
  ( ) '    -       
 
 ,  (  ),      
   
    (  )   ( )    
  
7.    
         
             , 
      
        ,   
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
  
2.
       
    
        
         
     
 ,       

      -       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
  :,          
 :             

 :    ,    '  
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
    - , , , , ,     - 
    
       
,   
              
  
    :              
-
5. 
     ?
: 
      ,    , ,   
           
    -
  ,         -   (   
    )      
;   , , ,
 , ,   -    ,   
       ,    
   
   
   1449            
    ,    - ,        
  -   ,     
   , 
2.
     '        (
  )    ,         
 , ,            ,
       
     
  ,  ,  ,      
              
         ,        -
 
   -    ,       () 
     :
       
     ,    
  ,     ,      ,     
  
   
             
   , "   ,   "      (
  ),  (),  ()   () '  
" "  
   
         , 
    -  -           
,    
,     
   , 
             
  ,             
    
   
              
 
   , , ,       
1.   
         :
        
        
2.
        
      ( )
 
,           ,
     
2.   
  ,        
    ,
              
                 
  
 
3.     
               
            -    
       , , ,   
                
 ,        ,     '   
4.   
   ,    ( )   (
 )         
,  , 
   -    
     
   '     
      
     -         
     
  
       :
- 
 

 
2.
 ,  , ,      
    ,     '     
     ,      ,  

      
  ' 
     
;        
, , , ,  -,       
        ,       
     
  ,    ,  , 
       
 120  (1449-1568)  
 ,          
,       ,       , 
             
  
   
        
    
        
 :
        
      ,   
       
              

           ,   ,
 ,              

   ,      
      
    , ,       
   ,    , , ,      
 
6.    
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  -   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
2.
 
     ,         -  
      
;           
              : 
    ,       
  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :              
  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
:    1498          
:             
  :   ,          
            
:1516 ,          
          ,     
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
            
   
    , ,       
  :          ,  
   
   ,       
:      ,     
      '   ,       
  ,       ,     

 :   ,        
     ,      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
            
:      ,       
  
:     ,         
:   ,         
 
2.
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔 (): "      , ;   
, 
   "
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
               
 
1.  :      ,     ' 

2. :     - , , ,  -  
 
3.   :      ,  
   
    
4.  :          
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
 :          
:         
 :         ,    
   
  :     ,  -   
       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
             ,   
              ,  
     -       -      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
            ,    
       
;         
              
,        
2.
-
7.      ?
: 
19
        '   ,  
            ,  ( ),
 ,          
  
,           ',  
          ,       
1828     
       
;   ,    
              
    ,       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼1.    -     
              ,  
              
            
   :
    
  ,     
    '    
      ,  
   ,            
              
 ,            
 
     
󸟡󹁗󹁘󸥊󷻤󹁙󸟣󹁚󹁓󹁔󹁕󹁖󷻪󷻫󹁛󷻬󸥏󸥐2.        
               
,            
  
2.
               
             ,  , 
      '     ,     
                   
   '     '            1829
 -          
     :
  
  
   
     -
   ,  -           
,        
󽅿󽆀3.         
              ,
                
         
 :
   
        
 -   ' 
,     '    
  -      -   ,     
     -        
    
󷖤󷖥󷖦4.      
                 
 

 ,   
      ,  
   ,      
    :
2.
  
      
   
     
    ,           
 '         -      
         
󹼯󹼰󹼱󹼳󹼲5.         
           :
      
   '     
   -    
              
        , "
   , 
 ,  
   "          
     
󺰎󺰏󺰐󺰑󺰒󺰓󺰔󺰕󺰖󺰗󺰘󺰙󺰚6.       
        
   ,      
               
        ,     ,
 ,        
                
     '     
 
7.        
                
    :
 
 
2.
  
 
             ,
          ,    '   
   
󷋇󷋈󷋉󷋊󷋋󷋌      
 ,      
;  , ,      
      ,   , - 
 ,   ,    ,    
   
        :
    - ,   
   
,      
   , -   

    ,  
  ,   
8.        
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
 ,     "  ",     
       19
    ,    
               
              
           
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :            -   

     
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
:   (1824–1883),     
:10  1875  ( )  
:               
 ,       
2.
:           , 
   '   
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  "   "    
,   
,         
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
      ,      :
   
  
  
    
   
      
       
     
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
1.  
       ,     -
()    
      -  ,   
     
2.  
       -  
       
-  -   
3.  
  (-      )  
  '  ,    
      
4.  
        ,    
  
2.
-    '         

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
             
 
              
 ,   ,        
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
      
       , 
   
,   ,         
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
19
                   -
,              
   ,    ,        

 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
              
      1875      ,    
   ,      
  
   ,    ,    '   
 
 
"              
  
       ,       
 "